Women’s Education and Societal Constraints – Mathilde Guerra
This article considers the challenges and evolution of education in 19th-century India, particularly highlighting the struggles women faced in gaining access to education. The article is enriched by delving into Rassundari Devi’s life and her influential autobiography, Amar Jiban. This work offers a distinct viewpoint on the challenges women faced in their quest for knowledge in that historical period.
Education in India during the 19th century
Access to education for women in British India during the 19th century was one of the early demands of missionary women. They thought it would provide opportunities for Indian women. At the beginning of the nineteenth century, education for women in India faced many prejudices, which prevented the early schools from attracting large numbers. Later in the 19th century, British missionary women appointed by the Ladies’ Missionary Societies began to come to India to convert Indian women[1]. While there was strong support for boys’ schools, girls’ education received little attention during colonial times.
In the Bengal Census of 1872, it is clearly shown that the number of girls was drastically inferior to the number of boys. In certain regions like Orissa, Chota Nagpore, and Assam, there were schools where no girls attended classes. However, in districts with a higher number of schools, there was some attendance by a small number of girls. Nevertheless, the overall representation of girls in these schools remained relatively low. For instance, in the Burdwan division with 1013 schools, the attendance rate for girls was 4.6%, while in the Presidency division, it was even lower at 3%[2].
In 1872, the Bengal Census was conducted by the British colonial government in India, aiming to collect data on various demographic and socio-economic aspects of the population living in the Bengal Presidency. It covered the territories of Bengal, Bihar, and Odisha and was one of the first comprehensive censuses conducted in India. The main objective of the census was to gather information on the population’s size, gender, religion, caste, occupation, and other relevant details. The British colonial government utilized this data to implement various policies and programs, such as taxation, land revenue, and social welfare measures[3].
The Bengal Census of 1872 was also significant because it marked the first time that the colonial government attempted to categorize the Indian population by religion and caste. The data collected through this census was later used to implement various policies that favored certain groups over others, leading to tensions and conflicts between different communities in India. For instance, the Caste Disabilities Removal Act of 1850, was enacted with the intention of eliminating legal restrictions placed on specific castes. However, the act was not implemented effectively, instead, the data gathered during the census was utilized to rationalize the persistence of these disabilities[4].
The colonial government showed little concern for the education of girls, despite the efforts of missionaries and liberal groups who pushed for it. Missionaries were particularly interested in educating girls, as they believed it would help to convert them permanently. However, since men held the decision-making power, female education was often viewed as secondary[5].
Nevertheless, there were women who tried to educate themselves independently. One such remarkable individual is Rassundari Davi, whose autobiography provides insight into her educational journey.
Rassundari Devi
In Bengal around the period 1850 to World War I, women produced almost 400 literary works, ranging from poetry to novels and autobiographies, and twenty-one journals[6]. Rassundari Devi was among the female writers of that time.
Rassundari was an author and wrote Amar Jiban (My Life), which is considered one of the first published autobiographies in the Bengali language. Raised by her widowed mother, she was born in the small village of Potajia in Patna (western Bangladesh) in 1809/1810. She was married at twelve and bore 12 children, seven of whom died early. Being a girl from a working-class background, she never received a proper education[7]. She explains that she taught herself to read at the age of twenty-six by stealing some pages of books from either her husband’s or her son’s books. She allegedly learned to write years later when her son expressed annoyance about her not answering his letters[8]. Rassundari became a widow at the age of fifty-nine, and a few months after her husband’s death, she finished and published the first version of her autobiography Amar Jiban in 1868, published in 1897.
In her work, Rassundari Devi described the life of a nineteenth century woman’s struggle for literacy. She wrote about God and how he enabled her to achieve literacy. And how during safe times, she learned all by herself despite fearing family and societal disapproval.
Through her book, she explained how she struggled to learn to write and read as she had no education and had to learn grammatical constructions, dates, time, and other details by herself. Rassundari, contrary to male Bengali authors, despised the greatness of being a housewife[9].
I was so immersed in the sea of housework that I was not conscious of what I was going through day and night. After some time the desire to learn how to read properly grew very strong in me. I was angry with myself for wanting to read books. Girls did not read… That was one of the bad aspects of the old system. The other aspects were not so bad. People used to despise women of learning… In fact, older women used to show a great deal of displeasure if they saw a piece of paper in the hand of a woman. But somehow I could not accept this[10].
Rassundari Devi’s life writing is a testimony to the the odds against the education of women in her generation. In a Report on the State of Education in Bengal (1836), William Adam wrote, “A superstitious feeling is alleged to exist in the majority of Hindu families, principally cherished by the women and not discouraged by the men, that a girl thought to read and write will soon after marriage became a widow”[11] The interesting point made by Rassundari Devi was that women themselves did not attempt to learn in order to not bring bad luck to their husbands, even if they wanted to. Her significance in Bengali literature lies not only in her literary contributions but also in her role as a pioneer for women’s voices. In a society where women are often relegated to the sidelines, Rassundari Devi’s work stands as a testament to her courage and determination to break free from societal constraints. Amar Jiban, Rassundari Devi’s autobiography, holds a unique place in the annals of autobiographical literature. Penned in the 19th century, it stands out as one of the earliest autobiographies written by an Indian woman. The very act of a woman articulating her own life experiences and thoughts was revolutionary during a period when female voices were seldom heard in literary circles. Amar Jiban provides a rare and authentic glimpse into the life of a woman navigating the societal expectations of her time.
Amar Jiban analysis
Amar Jiban is divided into two parts. The first part, comprising sixteen compositions narrating her life story, saw publication in 1876. The second part, featuring fifteen compositions, was published in 1906. Each composition is introduced by a short poem, with the first part’s being notably longer. Rassundari’s writing style is strong, condemning the treatment of women like herself within Bengali society during her time. These two parts discuss the intimate details of her childhood and marriage, and the everyday struggles faced by women in a society dominated by rigid norms[12].
Rassundari Devi’s grew up in a society where women faced strict expectations and limitations. As she reminisces about her childhood in Amar Jiban a poignant passage reveals the societal expectations:
If I am asked to describe my state of mind, I would say that it was very much like the sacrificial goat being dragged to the altar, the same hopeless situation, the same agonized screams. I could see none of my relatives near me. I was miserable, and in tears I kept calling for my mother.
Immersed in the societal expectations of her time, Rassundari Devi found herself entangled in domestic responsibilities. She faced an inner struggle between her desire for education and the restrictive social norms of her time.
In A book of Her Own. A life of her Own Autobiography of a Nineteenth-Century Woman, scholar Tanika Sarkar discuss how during the nineteenth century traditional Hindu beliefs suggested that if a woman was literate, she was destined to become a widow. Within Rassundari’s own family, there was strong opposition to women’s education, to the point where she avoided looking at a piece of paper to avoid suspicion of reading. The initial efforts by liberal Indian reformers and Christian missionaries to educate women from forward-thinking families faced resistance, leading to a hardening of Hindu opinion against such initiatives[13]. In her book Rassundari Devi explains that she had to steal from her husband’s books in order to learn how to read.
When the book was brought into the room I detached one sheet and hid it. But I was afraid lest it were found. That would be a disgrace. I might even be rebuked. It was not easy to face criticism or rebuke. I was very sensitive about those things. Those days were not like present ones. We were completely under the control of men. And I was particularly nervous. I was at a loss with that sheet. Where should I keep it so that nobody would find ie? But if they did, what would they say? [14]
This passage from Rassundari Devi’s book reveals the extent of societal constraints she faced during her quest for education, revealing that she resorted to taking sheets from her husband’s books to teach herself to read. The act of detaching a sheet and hiding it underscores her determination to overcome societal limitations on women’s education. Her apprehension about potential disgrace or rebuke reflects the prevailing societal norms of that era, where women were under strict control, making such pursuits challenging and often met with criticism. The passage provides an intimate insight into the difficulties she faced, emphasizing how women had to secretly seek education, in a society dominated by traditional gender roles.
Rassundari Devi’s reliance on prayer underscores the societal barriers that made women’s education difficult during her time. Her acknowledgment that even with effort and a potential teacher, time was a precious commodity highlights the many challenges she navigated. The understanding of the constraints she faced heightens the significance of her faith in God as a guiding force. In her autobiography she explains how she prayed to God to help her on her journey to learn how to read.
Gradually I began to lose hope, but I prayed to God constantly, “Please, God, teach me how to read. If you don’t, who else will?” That was my constant prayer. Sometimes I used to think that I would never succeed. Even if I tried hard and somebody was willing to teach me, where was the time? It was useless. I’d never learn. The very next moment I thought, Of course I will. God has given me hope. He can never disappoint me. Encouraged, I kept that sheet to myself. But I had no time to look at it. I kept the sheet in my left hand while 1 did the cooking and glanced at it through the sari, which was drawn over my face. But a mere glance was not enough, because I could not identify the letters.’[15]
Rassundari Devi’s reliance on prayer underscores the societal barriers that hindered women’s education during her time. Her acknowledgment that even with effort and as a potential teacher, time was a scarce resource illustrates the multifaceted challenges she faced. The recognition of the limitations of her circumstances heightens the significance of her faith in God as a guiding force in her pursuit.
The act of keeping the stolen sheet in her left hand while performing daily tasks symbolizes the integration of her spiritual beliefs into her practical life. The veil of her sari becomes a metaphorical barrier as she steals moments to glance at the sheet, attempting to grasp the elusive letters. This dual existence of spiritual supplication and practical endeavors encapsulates the complexity of her relationship with God in the context of her educational aspirations.
Conclusion
Through her autobiography, Rassundari Devi becomes a beacon of resilience, transcending societal barriers and reshaping the narrative for women in her era. Her journey from domestic immersion to a fervent pursuit of education serves as an inspiration, breaking barriers and paving the way for subsequent generations of women seeking autonomy through knowledge. Rassundari’s story epitomizes resilience and determination in the face of adversity. Her autobiography not only challenges societal perceptions of women’s roles but also serves as a catalyst for societal introspection, sparking conversations about the importance of women’s education and autonomy. It remains very important today, at a time when many girls and women around the world still have to struggle for their right to education.
Mathilde Guerra – M2 Études anglophones
Bibliography
Primary sources
- BEVERLEY H., “The Census of Bengal” Journal of the Statistical Society of London, Calcutta, vol. 37, no. 1, p. 69–113.
Secondary sources
- FORBES G., Women in Modern India, Cambridge University Press, United Kingdom, 1999.
- HIRA N., “Rassundari Devi: The Woman Who Published The First Autobiography In Bengali”, Feminism in India, 2017.
- RADHA K., The History of Doing-an illustrated account of movements for women’s rights and feminism in India 1800-1990, Kali for Women, New Delhi, 1993.
- SUMIT S. & TANIKA S., Women and Social Reform in Modern India: A Reader, Bloomington: Indiana University Press, USA, 2008.
- THARU S. & LALITA K., Women Writing in India: 600 B.C. to the Early Twentieth Century, Feminist Press at CUNY, New York, 1991.
- SARKAR T., “A Book of Her Own. A Life of Her Own: Autobiography of a Nineteenth-Century Woman.” In History Workshop, 1993, no. 36, p. 35–65.
[1] The History of Doing by Radha Kumar, p. 14.
[2] The Census of Bengal by Beverley Henry.
[3] The Census of Bengal by Beverley Henry.
[4] The Census of Bengal by Beverley Henry.
[5] Women and Social Reform in India by Sumit Sarkar and Tanika Sarkar., p. 87.
[6] Women in Modern India by Geraldine Forbes, p. 29.
[7] Rassundari Devi: The Woman Who Published the First Autobiography in Bengali, by Hira, Naaz.
[8] Rassundari Devi: The Woman Who Published the First Autobiography in Bengali, by Hira, Naaz.
[9] Rassundari Devi: The Woman Who Published the First Autobiography in Bengali, by Hira, Naaz.
[10] Women in Modern India by Geraldine Forbes, p. 29.
[11] Women in Modern India by Geraldine Forbes, p. 33.
[12] Women writing in India by Tharu, Susie and Lalita, K, p. 191.
[13] A Book of Her Own. A Life of Her Own: Autobiography of a Nineteenth-Century Woman, by Sarkar, Tanika, p. 36.
[14] Amar Jiban by Rassundari Devi, chapter six.
[15] Amar Jiban by Rassundari Devi, chapter six.
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membrelp (5 juillet 2024). Women’s Education and Societal Constraints – Mathilde Guerra. Investigatio. Consulté le 20 avril 2026 à l’adresse https://doi.org/10.58079/11y5z

